This is the title of a paper I presented at the Western Economic
Association Meetings in 1992 in San Francisco. I will be posting this
paper in parts. There will be 5 parts. This last part has the
bibliography and a transcript of the radio interview when Joseph
Campbell said entrepreneurs are heroes. Part 4 has footnotes.
Part 1.
Part 2.
Part 3.
Part 4.
Part 5.
ABSTRACT
The psychology of
entrepreneurship can be better understood by comparing it to the hero's
adventure (as well as the trickster's) In mythology because myths are often
seen as symbolic representations of the psyche. The hero and the entrepreneur
are found to be similar in their respective adventures, a three part sequence
of separation from the community, initiation into new creative powers and a
return to the community with a boon for his fellow citizens. Both are creative,
curious, energetic risk takers who are guided by mentors. Entrepreneurship can
be seen as a manifestation of a universal human psychological condition, the
desire for individual creativity.
INTRODUCTION
It has not been uncommon in the
past, and even today, to refer to the entrepreneur as a hero. Burch (1986), for
example, writes "In America today, many people view the entrepreneur as
the hero of capitalism and the free enterprise system" (p. 24). Another,
Gilder (1984), refers to them as "the heroes of economic life" (p.
24) and says we have "An Economy of Heroes." Sarachek (1978) compares
them to the heroes found in the myths of Horatio Alger. But what is a hero?
None of these authors defines one. The important question is: Are entrepreneurs
in any way like the hero from mythology? If these authors are using a standard
dictionary definition, then the entrepreneur is the central figure of
capitalism and possesses courage, strength, nobility, achievement and
"other qualities." Such a conclusion is consistent with what is
commonly thought about entrepreneurs by those who would call them heroes. What
is important is that the nature of these characteristics possessed by the
entrepreneur closely resemble the characteristics of the hero in mythology. It
is a standard belief that not only are myths symbolic representations of our
psyches, but that the role of the hero in myth is universal and that myths help
to instruct individuals in charting a course for their own lives. This
assertion is based on the work of psychoanalysis. This is because in myths, according to
Campbell (1968) "symbolic expression is given to the unconscious desires,
fears, and tensions that underlie the conscious patterns of human
behavior" and that understanding the myth puts us in touch with "the
deep forces that have shaped man's destiny and must continue to determine both
our private and our public lives" (p. 255-6). Leeming (1973) shares this
view (p. 9) along with, according to Barnaby and D'Acierno (1990), a large
number of Jungian interpreters (p. 3). Jung
(1951) himself said "Myths are original revelations of the
pre-conscious psyche, involuntary statements about unconscious happenings ...
" (p. 101).
This paper
compares, and finds many similarities between the hero In mythology and the
entrepreneur. Finding such similarities has important implications regarding
the psychology of entrepreneurship, the nature of capitalism and government
control over economies.
But
the importance may be even deeper than this. Myths, to the extent that they are
about the hero's journey (which will be summarized later) were stories about
spiritual development, self-discovery, and the tapping of great creative power.
They teach us how to find these things in ourselves by showing us how the hero
does it. To the extent that the hero and the entrepreneur are similar, there
may be a heretofore unacknowledged spiritual dimension to capitalism if its
essence is seen as entrepreneurship. This added spiritual dimension is
important because as Gilder (1981) points out, capitalism is not usually seen
for its own inherent but as unheroic and merely not as bad as the other
economic (p. 4). Schumpeter (1962), in a way, also saw capitalism as "unheroic."
He wrote "I have called the bourgeois rationalist and unheroic. He can
only use a rationalist and unheroic means to defend his position or to bend a
nation to his will" (p. 137) and "[C]apitalist civilization is rationalistic
'and anti-heroic'" (p. 128).
Showing how the
entrepreneur is like the universal hero in mythology might help to show that
there is a chance for spiritual and creative fulfillment and self discovery in
capitalism through entrepreneurship. If government economic policies and
economic systems should be based on human nature (which may be to seek
adventure and self discovery) and if the entrepreneurs are like mythological
heroes, a strong case can be made for the superiority of capitalism (or some
system that allows a large degree of entrepreneurship).
The late
mythologist Joseph Campbell, of whom the psychologist James Hillman said
"No one in our century, not Freud, not Thomas Mann, or Levi-Strauss, has
so brought the mythical sense of the world back into our everyday
consciousness" (Cousineau, 1990, p. 178), called the entrepreneur the
"real hero" in American capitalist society without rigorously
analyzing that thesis (New Dimensions-See Appendix). This paper uses Campbell's
description of the hero's journey. Archer Taylor (1964, p. 128) summed up some of
the major work on heroes and the patterns of their stories with:
"Four
scholars have perceived a biographical pattern in tales. The texts used by
Hahn, Rank, and Lord Raglan are stories of gods and heroes. Campbell goes
farther and includes a few fairy tales. Propp believes that his formula for
fairy tales lead ultimately to a story of a dragons layer, in other words, to
the story of Perseus and Andromeda that the three others analyzed. The ways in
which these scholars see and describe the tales vary, but the differences could
be reconciled with rather little effort. The discovery of a biographical
utilization of a pattern is no very surprising result of their labors. It is a
natural utilization of a pattern easily inferred from life itself, or from
biography, history, and human psychology. The four scholars have declined to go
very far beyond pointing out the pattern. Campbell goes further than any of the
others in commenting on its variations."
Campbell's model of the hero's
adventure is also quite similar to Leeming's (1973) and Mircea Eliade's (1990,
p. 39). Segal (1990) shows that Campbell's hero is Jungian (p. 42) and similar
to Erik Erickson's in that the hero's journey is a quest for personal identity
(p. 34). Jung (1956) himself said that the hero archetype represents this need
of the human psyche (p. 178). Eliot (1990) reports that, in fact, Jungian
therapists use Campbell's work in guiding their patients' journey (p. 232).
Even modern Freudians see myths as a useful tool (Segal, 1990, p. 44). This
paper examines the parallels in the role of the hero (which Campbell found to
be similar In many of the world's cultures) and the entrepreneur.
A relevant issue
here is empiricism. Although this paper presents no original empirical
analysis, it does rely on entrepreneurial research that is empirically based
(e.g., The Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship). This is also true of the
writings of George Gilder, who used Karl Vesper's New Venture Strategies
and the annual Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research as well as The
Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship to explicate the subject. Bull and Willard
(1993) "accept that much of the innovating entrepreneur's decision process
is beyond systematic calculation (p. 188)." Bygrave (1993) feels that it
may be mathematically impossible to model entrepreneurship "because there
is 'an essential non-algorithmic aspect to conscious human action'" (p.
255). Karl Vesper, editor of The Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, feels
that both empirical and reflective papers are needed to understand
entrepreneurship (from personal correspondence). This is intended to be a
reflective paper.
The model of
the hero's adventure presented here probably does not apply completely to all
entrepreneurs. No single model could. But given that the evidence and views
compiled here show entrepreneurship to be similar to the hero's adventure, a
new and important perspective on the psychology of the entrepreneur is gained.
The entrepreneur, however, is seen as a hero, not a saint. The adventure
involves both creation and destruction. Negative aspects of entrepreneurship
such as business failure and job destruction are just as real as the positive
aspects. The entrepreneur, therefore, may be a trickster, another mythic
figure, as well as a hero. Tricksters and heroes are both agents of change.
Tricksters are as universal as heroes and may be creative or subversive.
(Willis, 1993) writes "Mischievous, cunning and humorous, tricksters are
often seen as possessing the ability to switch between animal and human
personae." (p. 24) A parallel, and very negative view of the entrepreneur
comes from Karl Marx:
"Every man speculates
upon creating a new need in another in order to force him to a new sacrifice,
to place him in a new dependence, and to entice him into a new kind of pleasure
and thereby into economic ruin. Everyone tries to establish over others an
alien power in order to find there the satisfaction of his own egoistic need.
With the increasing mass of objects, therefore, the realm of alien entities to
which man is subjected also increases. Every new product is a new potentiality
of mutual deceit and robbery. Man becomes increasingly poor as a man; he has
increasing need of money in order to take possession of the hostile being. The
power of his m 0 n e y diminishes directly with the growth of the quantity of
production, i.e. his need increases with the increasing power of money. The
expansion of production and of needs becomes an ingenious and always
calculating subservience to inhuman, depraved, unnatural and imaginary
appetites. Private property does not know how to change crude need into human need;
its idealism is fantasy, caprice, and fancy. No eunuch flatters his tyrant more
shamefully or seeks by more infamous means to stimulate his jaded appetite, in
order to gain some favour, than does the eunuch of industry, the entrepreneur,
in order to acquire a few silver coins or to charm the gold from the purse of
his dearly beloved neighbour. The entrepreneur accedes to the most depraved
fancies of his neighbour, plays the role of pander between him and his needs,
awakens unhealthy appetites in him, and watches for every weakness so that
later on he may claim the remuneration for this labour of love." (p. 78)
Such critiques of modern
advertising are well known. The entrepreneur may be a bringer of death and
destruction rather than a creator boons. His or her journey may be one that
prepares them for and develops their ability to cause harm to the community rather
than to help it. Which ever is true depends upon the motive for starting a new
business: maximization or the spirit of
adventure. While economics assumes profit maximization, some research suggests
the need to be creative and the spirit of adventure (see p. 17). Even
Schumpeter (1983) saw the spirit of adventure and the joy of creating as
motives for entrepreneurship. (p. 923) Perhaps, like many human actions,
entrepreneurship results from mixed motives. In that case, then, the
entrepreneur is both hero and trickster. This makes sense because as Eliade
(1969) points out, tricksters often perform heroic deeds. (p. 156) Jung (1964)
saw the trickster as a step in the evolution to one's becoming a hero or even a
shaman. (p. 147) A recently published book called The New Entrepreneurs:
Business Visionaries for the 21st Century sees entrepreneurs as heroes who
will contribute to the overall well-being of the community. Just as the
trickster evolves into the hero in mythology, the entrepreneur may be evolving
into a hero from the trickster of Karl Marx .
Before moving on to the actual comparison, two facts
need to be noted.
The first is
that the assertion of the universality of entrepreneurship is now being
explored by other scholars. One example is a recent study done by Ian MacMillan
and Rita Gunther McGrath of the Wharton School's entrepreneurial center. They
found that "entrepreneurs think alike, no matter what country they call
home" (The Wall Street Journal, February 6, 1992, p. AI). Another
is Berger (1991) who shows how entrepreneurship IS a worldwide phenomenon that
is transforming economies even in the most unexpected of places.
The second involves the idea of using mythology or
psychology in economic analysis. This is not new and there are several notable
examples. The first, from O'Donnell (1989), is Keynes's idea that irrational
animal spirits are necessary for an adequate level of entrepreneurial
initiative (p. 256). The second, from Rostow (1960), is the inclusion of the
desire for adventure as an important element in human behavior (p. 149). The
third is work done by Ian Mitroff (1983) which uses archetypes to analyze the
behavior of stakeholders in social systems. He even cites the work of Joseph
Campbell. Fourth, this is an era in which mythology is being used to understand
economics. Silver (1991) analyzes the ancient economy through mythology while Putka (1993) reports
that business case studies are now being written which compare literary
figures, including heroes, to business managers (p. A1). Even two business
professors at Stanford University, Catford and Ray (1991), have written a
popular book on mythology partly inspired by Campbell. So it is not surprising
that Eliade (1990) wrote "The mythic imagination can hardly be said to have
disappeared; it is still very much with us, having only adapted its workings to
the material now at hand" (p. 42). Finally, Shapero and Sokol (1982)
believe that for a complete understanding of entrepreneurship it will be
necessary to delve into such fields as occupational psychology, cultural
anthropology, the sociology of religion and personality psychology (p. 74).
Mythology is really not too far away from those disciplines.
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